關鍵詞： 媒介教育 媒介素養 文化研究方法 預防方式 媒介教育的發展歷史 媒介教育理論 數字化 在線教育

[摘要]： 本文意在考察研究媒介教育的本質及其在美國的施行狀況。全文分為五個部分：第一部分論述了美國在媒介教育方面遠遠落后于其他英語國家的原因。第二部分從三個階段（預防階段、面對階段、轉變階段）對美國媒介教育的歷史進行了簡單的回顧。第三和第四部分從概念與應用的層面對媒介教育加以分析。最后的第五部分探討了美國的媒介教育未來將要面對的挑戰，所涉及的包括媒介教育的集中與擴展、從運動變為教育干預及新技術帶來的影響等。本文的結論是，美國的媒介教育需要不斷地進步革新從而達到一個更加令人滿意的水平。

Abstract: This paper attempts to examine what media education is and how it functions in the United States from five perspectives: introduction， a brief history， conceptual issues， application issues， and future challenges. The introduction lays down the reasons why the United States is far behind other English speaking nations in media education. The second section examines the history of media education in the United States from three stages: inoculation phase， facing-it phase， and transitional phase. The third and fourth sections analyze the media education from conceptual and application levels. Finally in the fifth section， future challenges facing the centralization and expansion of media education， from movement to educational intervention， and the impact of new technology are discussed. It concludes that a continuous reform is needed for the media education in the United States to reach a more satisfactory level. [China Media Research. 2007; 3(3): 87-103] Keywords: media education， media literacy， cultural studies approach， inoculation approach， history of media education， media education theories， digitalization， online education

未來的挑戰 美國媒介教育在未來將要遇到的挑戰可分為三個方面：媒介教育的集中與擴展、從運動變為教育干預、新技術帶來的影響。 集中與擴展 從上文有關概念問題與應用問題的描述中我們可以看出，媒介教育的多種定義——無視其名目如何——都在向著同一個方向靠攏，即接受“媒介教育是以培養媒介素養為目的的一個過程”。它意在通過獲得接觸、分析和評價媒介作品的能力，并且同時獲得離開學校后的就業能力，從而培養起批判性思維。然而，由于媒介教育的執行與評價受中央的或國家性政策指導，因此這對于美國來說仍是一個巨大的挑戰。 在澳大利亞、加拿大、英國和幾乎所有的歐洲國家，媒介教育都在國家層面擁有堅實的支撐力量。然而與這些國家不同，對于美國來說，制定全國性的媒介教育課程和政策似乎有些不太現實。由于美國的教育體系分由五十個獨立的州來進行操作和管理，并且明顯受到家長和社會團體的影響，因此要想建立起一個統一了各種利益與各州目標的中心式計劃幾乎是不可能的。所以，美國是否應該尋求某種替代性的方式——比如由Thoman（1990）提出的以家長或家庭為中心的方法——來解決這種地方分權的問題？這要留待媒介教育者們來回答了。 對媒介教育的內在成分和外部聯系加以擴展是美國的媒介教育者們需要面對的另一個問題。一直以來，媒介教育關注于英文的書面文本；而在信息爆炸的今天，我們還需要通過廣告、電影、電腦、報紙、電視等對其他一些信息形式（比如語言形式、聽覺形式、視覺形式）加以關注——不僅包括書面文字，還包括藥物濫用、暴力、色情、消費主義、社會不公等主題。此外，這種擴展還涉及社會研究、科學、行為藝術等學科（Allen， 1992）。換句話說，對媒介教育的內在成分加以擴展、對跨學科的媒介教育加以設計，這是另一個需要媒介教育者們集中智慧加以解決的問題。 媒介教育的外部聯系是指學校內的媒介教育體系與外界團體（包括家長、社會團體、非營利性組織、商業公司等）之間的關系（Christ和Hynes，2006；Masterman，1997）。如果學校里的媒介教育要與外界團體進行協作，課堂自主性、教學法、教育目標和行政管理政策將會如何受到外部團體的影響（比如說由于不同的地區信仰、家長的過度參與、來自于商業機構的捐款及人力物力支持[Brown，1998；Hobbs，1998b；Kellner和Share，2005]），這是美國的媒介教育將在未來遇到的另一個挑戰。 從社會運動到教育干預 作為一種社會運動，要求建立媒介教育計劃的活動已經結束了強烈要求社會承認的第一階段，而開始在地區/國家的層面上接受官方的正式批準（Bazalgette，1997）。媒介素養的進步成為大家所向往的教育目標，這實在鼓舞人心。但是這一社會運動是否已轉變成一場有效的教育干預，仍然是一個問題。Tyner（2000）指出，社會運動中常見的喊口號式的做法仍然存在于媒介教育的發展過程中，具有不確定、緊迫和夸張等特點；這種表達方式讓教育者們很難在媒介教育中制定明確而連貫的理論原則。換句話說，參與教育工作的人們很難對這種語言加以理解和接受，這就影響到了他們為媒介教育的學校改革做出貢獻。因此就Tyner看來，“如何闡明媒介教育的目標（這與學校文化是協調一致的）”是一個教育者們需要繼續努力的問題。 Bazalgette（1997）指明，為了制定出一套合理有效的媒介教育計劃，我們需要突破媒介教育運動發展第一階段中的五條局限：（1）媒介教育是激進人士的天下；（2）學習進步收效甚微；（3）媒介素養有多種概念；（4）媒介教師與媒介從業人員之間存在很大的差別；（5）缺乏研究和充分掌握信息情況下的辯論。如今，雖然情況已經大大改善，但是這些局限還是或多或少地存在。Aufderheide（2004）也有過類似的擔心。他指出，當前的美國媒介教育需要解決四個明確而急迫的需要：（1）數據問題——研究者們需要獲得更多的基礎信息來支持媒介教育的發展；（2）公共性問題——需要制定連貫一致的概念和定義，從而可以建立起面向多種媒介教育計劃的公共平臺；（3）基礎建設問題——需要建立起一個全國性的機構來制定媒介教育發展的計劃與步驟，從而將各方面的努力統一協調起來；（4）有效益的、良性的關系問題——需要在政策制定者、社會團體和外界組織之間建立起互動的橋梁。對以上這些局限與急迫的需要加以了解，可以幫助教育者們更好地面對媒介教育在未來將要遇到的挑戰。 新技術的影響 新技術不僅改變了我們的生活方式，還給二十一世紀的媒介教育帶來巨大的挑戰（CML Reflection Resource，2002-2003；Kubey，1997）。新技術的影響主要來源于媒介的數字化（Abernathy和Allen，2003；Buckingham和Sefton-Green，1997；Fischetti，2000；Mammett和Barrell，2002；Olson和Pollard，2004；Tyner，1998；Warnick，2001）。據Olson和Pollard（2004），數字化的巨大力量、尤其是將傳統媒介（如報紙）和數字媒介（如計算機）加以混合與會聚的能力還沒有被美國媒介教育所重視。媒介的數字化趨勢要求我們以新的方式從三個方面看待媒介教育：新數字美學、認知效應、社會效應。 數字化趨勢是指以二進制碼對印刷與電子媒介加以整合，將傳統媒介轉變為數字媒介，并由此產生一整套完全不同的生產與分配模式。我們應在媒介教育的范疇內對數字化趨勢在美學和在觀眾認知方面產生的效應加以研究，不僅僅關注于“數字環境中的計算機和網絡媒介，而且要關注數字化媒介如何影響了傳統媒介環境”（Olson和Pollard，2004，p. 249）。對媒介教育產生影響的數字美學特征可能包括交互性、操縱性，對所有媒介的內容進行目標的預設與再設，有意識的虛擬經驗的創造，并嘗試以之為產生新內容的一種方式等。 數字化趨勢在認知方面產生的效應源于它的非線性特征和對數字媒體內容要求方面的期望的創建，這直接影響著學生們使用媒介的方式。最后，數字化媒介所產生的最重要的社會效應是“去大眾化”（Olason和Pollard，2004）。以前那種數量很大且成分均一的觀眾群體將逐漸消失；數字化媒介通過讓觀眾們根據自己的意愿選擇媒介信息，從而形成具有針對性的訴求，而不是大眾化的訴求。對于這種從大眾化向個人化的轉變，媒介教育應該思考一下它對于美國文化和美國民主生活方式的意義。 結論 本文從四個方面對美國媒介教育的發展狀況進行了回顧：一、論述了美國媒介教育落后于大多數英語國家的原因。二、分三個階段對美國的媒介教育發展歷史進行了簡單的描述：預防階段、面對階段和轉變階段。三、對有關美國媒介教育的定義與性質等概念問題進行了分析。四、對“如何設計與發布媒介教育課程”及“如何評價媒介教育計劃”等應用問題進行了討論。最后，筆者指出未來美國媒介教育將會遇到的三種挑戰：“媒介教育的集中與擴展”，“從運動變為教育干預”及“新技術帶來的影響”。 總之，本文力圖反映描繪的是美國媒介教育的過去、現在與將來。盡管筆者不曾冀望能詳盡展現其全貌，但在該領域繼續進行改革的必要性已經昭顯：我們需要不斷地進步，從而在概念上改善模糊、極端和分裂的狀況，在操作上改善課程設計和評價的矛盾與不一致現象，同時正視由新的媒介技術所帶來的未來挑戰。如此，美國才能建立起合理完善的媒介教育體系、與其他國家分享經驗、并最終為世界的媒介教育做出自己的貢獻。

Notes. 1. A sample list of active non-profit media education associations in the United States: Action Coalition for Media Education (http://www.acmecoalition.org/) Alliance for a Media Literate America (http://www.amlainfo.org/) Assessment in Media Education (http://www.readingonline.org/newliteracies/worsnop/) Association for Media Literacy (http://www.aml.ca/home/) Center for Media Literacy (http://www.medialit.org/) Center of Media Studies (http://www.mediastudies.rutgers.edu/cmsyme.html) Citizens for Media Literacy (http://www.main.nc.us/cml/) Commercial Alert (http://www.commercialalert.org/) Media Education Foundation (http://www.mediaed.org/) Media Matters: A National Media Education Campaign (http://www.aap.org/advocacy/mediamatters.htm) Media Watch (http://www.mediawatch.com/) National Telemedia Council (http://www.nationaltelemediacouncil.org/) Pauline Center for Media Studies (http://www.daughtersofstpaul.com/mediastudies/) 2. 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Retrieved February 20， 2006， from http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/ teachers/media_education/media_education_overview. cfm Media Awareness Network. (2006b). Chronology of media education in Canada. Retrieved February 20， 2006， from http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/ teachers/ media_education/ media_education_chronology.cfm Metallinos， N. (Ed.) (1994). Verbo-visual literacy: Understanding and applying new educational communication media technologies. Montreal， Canada: 3Dmt Research & Information Center. Meyrowitz， J. (1998). Multiple media literacy. Journal of communication， 48(1)， 96-108. Moore， R. C. (2006). Direct measures: The capstone course. In W. G. Christ (Ed.)， Assessing media education: A resource handbook for educators and administrators (pp. 439-459). Mahwah， NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. National Communication Association (1998). The speaking， listening， and media literacy standards and competency statements for k-12 education. Annandale， VA: NCA. Retrieved March 7， 2006， from http://www.natcom.org/nca/files/ ccLibraryFiles/FILENAME/000000000119/K12%20Standards.pdf Olson， S. R.， & Pollard， T. (2004). The muse pixelipe: Digitalization and media literacy education. American Behavioral Scientist， 48(2)， 248-255. Ontario Ministry of Education (1989). Media literacy resource guide. Retrieved March 10， 2006， from http://www.medialit.org/reading_room/article338.html Parsons， P. (2006). Indirect measures: Institutional data， surveys， interviews， and advisory boards. In W. G. Christ (Ed.)， Assessing media education: A resource handbook for educators and administrators (pp. 329-347). Mahwah， NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2003). Learning for the 21st century: A report and mile guide for 21st century skills. Washington D. C.: Author. Piette， J.， & Giroux， L. (1997). The theoretical foundations of media education programs. In R. Kubey (Ed.)， Media literacy in the information age: Current perspectives (Vol. 6， pp. 89-134). New Brunswick， NJ: Transaction. Pungente， J. (1997). Live long and proper: Media literacy in the USA， Clipboard， 8(2)， Summer. Retrieved March 3， 2006， from http://interact.uoregon.edu/mediaLit/mlr /readings/articles/medialit.html Rosenbaum， J. (1994). Assessment: An overview. In W. G. Christ (Ed.)， Assessing communication education: A handbook for media， speech & theatre educators (pp. 3-29). Hillsdale， NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Quin， R.， & McMahon， B. (1997). Living with the tiger: Media curriculum issues for the future. In R. Kubey (Ed.)， Media literacy in the information age (pp. 307-321). New Brunswick， NJ: Transaction. Rubin， A. (1998). Media literacy: Editor’s note. Journal of Communication， 48(1)， 3-4. Scharrer， E. (2002/2003， December/January). Making a case for media literacy in the curriculum: Outcomes and assessment. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy， 46(4). Retrieved March 8， 2006， from http://www.readingonline.org/ newliteracies/lit_index.asp?HREF=/newliteracies/jaal/12-02_column/index. html Scheibe， C.， & Rogow ， F. (2004). 12 basic principles for incorporating media literacy and critical thinking into any curriculum. Ithaca， NY: Ithaca College. Sholle， D.， & Denski， S. (1994). Media education and the (re)production of culture. Westport， CT: Bergin & Garvey. Silverblatt， A. (1995). Media literacy: Keys to interpreting media messages. Westport， CT: Praeger. Sinartra， R. (1986). Visual literacy connections to thinking， reading and writing. Springfield， IL: Charles C. Thomas. Singer， D. G.， & Singer， J. L. (1998). Developing critical viewing skills and media literacy in children. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science， 557， 164–180. Thoman， E. (1990， July). New directions in media education. Paper presented at the international Conference of the University of Toulouse， France. Retrieved February 26， 2006， from http://www.medialit.org /reading_room/article126.html. Thoman， E. (1993). Skills and strategies for media education. Retrieved March 10， 2006， from http://www.medialit.org/reading_room/article1.html Thoman， E. (1995). The three stages of media literacy. Retrieved March 12， 2006， from http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/teachers/media_literacy/ what_is_media_literacy.cfm Thoman， E.， & Jolls， T. (2004). Media literacy – A national priority for a changing world. American Behavioral Scientist， 48(1)， 18-29. Tucker， D. E. (2006). Direct measures: Examinations. In W. G. Christ (Ed.)， Assessing media education: A resource handbook for educators and administrators (pp. 373-395). Mahwah， NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Tyner， K. (1991). The media education elephant. Retrieved March 6， 2006， from http://www.medialit.org/reading_room/ article429.html Tyner， K. (1998). Literacy in a digital world: Teaching and learning in the age of information. Mahwah， NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Tyner， K. (2000， May). Media education in the year 2000: Directions and challenges. Paper presented at the international conference on “Children， Youth and the Media”. Toronto， Ontario: Canada. Walsh， B. (2006a). A brief history of media education. Retrieved February 26， 2006， from http://interact.uoregon.edu/mediaLit/mlr/readings/articles/briefhistml.html Walsh， B. (2006b). Expanding the definition of media literacy. Retrieved March 3， 2006， from http://interact.uoregon.edu/mediaLit/mlr/readings/articles/ Expanding_Media_lit.html Warnick， B. (2001). Critical Literacy in a Digital Era: Technology， Rhetoric， and the Public Interest. Hillsdale， NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Williams， R. (1961). The long revolution. London: Chatto & Windus. Zettl， H. (1990). Sight sound motion: applied media aesthetics. Belmont， CA: Wadsworth. Appendix A. Major Events in the History of Media Literacy in the United States. I. Pre-1960: Early visionaries prepare the way 1. Marshall Mcluhan’s revolutional work on media. 2. John Culkin first invented the term “media literacy.” II. 1960-1970: First experiments with media in schools 1. Early experiments in school television production started in the early 1960s. 2. The first TV studio in Murray Avenue Elementary in Larchmont， New York was established in 1965. 3. Iowa educators pioneered “Media Now Curriculum” in mid-1960s. Its Southwest Iowa Learning Resources Center (LRC) became a precursor of today’s area education agencies and served as a community locus for an innovative film study program. 4. Ford Foundation funds experimental high school TV program started in the late 1960s. 5. A report announced that the “Screen Education” movement failed to survive the war in the late 1960s. III. 1970 - 1980: Early programs paved the way 1. Church groups introduced “Television Awareness Training” (TAT) for parents and adults in 1977. The Viewer’s Guide for Family and Community was developed. 2. Media & Values magazine began to chronicle growing influence of media culture and publish early activities for media literacy classroom in 1977. 3. The School of Public communication at Boston University， under a contract with the Department of Health， Education and Welfare， and US Office of Education， developed the “Television Literacy: Critical Television Viewing Skills” curriculum in 1979.

Knowledge Behaviors Attitudes 1. Recognize the centrality of communication in human endeavors. 2. Recognize the importance of communication for educational practices. 3. Recognize the roles of culture and language in media practices. 4. Identity personal and public media practices. 5. Identify personal and public media content， forms， and products. 6. Analyze the historical and current ways in which media affect people’s personal and public lives. 7. Analyze media ethical issues. 8. Access information in a variety of media forms. 9. Illustrate how people use media in their personal and public lives. 10. Are motivated to evaluate media and communication practices in terms of basic social values such as freedom， responsibility， privacy and public standards of decency.

II. Media literate communicators demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the complex relationships among audiences and media content. Knowledge Behaviors Attitudes 1. Identify media forms， content， and products. 2. Recognize that media are open to multiple interpretations. 3. Explain how audience members interpret meanings. 4. Describe how media practitioners determine the nature of audiences. 5. Explain how media socialize people. 6. Evaluate ideas and images in media with possible inpidual， social and cultural consequences. 7. Create standards to evaluate media content， forms， and products. 8. Illustrate how media content， forms， and audience interpretations are linked to viewing practices. 1. Are motivated to recognize the complex relationships among media content， forms， and audience practices

III. Media literate communicators demonstrate knowledge and understanding that media content is produced within social and cultural contexts.

Knowledge Behaviors Attitudes 1. Identify the production contexts of media content and products. 2. Identify the social and cultural constraints on the production of media. 3. Identify the social and cultural agencies that regulate media content and products. 4. Evaluate the ideas and aesthetics in media content and products. 5. Demonstrate how media content and products are produced within social and cultural contexts. 6. Demonstrate how social and cultural regulations affect media content and products. 7. Are motivated to examine the relationships among media content and products and the larger social and cultural contexts of their production.

IV. Media literate communicators demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the commercial nature of media.

Knowledge Behaviors Attitudes 1. Explain how media organizations operate. 2. Identify the social and cultural agencies that regulate media organizations. 3. Compare media organizations to other social and cultural organizations 4. Demonstrate the relationships between media organizations and media distribution practices. 5. Are motivated to analyze the historical and current ways in which media organizations operate in relationship to democratic processes.

V. Media literate communicators demonstrate ability to use media to communicate to specific audiences.

Knowledge Behaviors Attitudes 1. Identify suitable media to communicate for specific purposes and outcomes. 2. Identify the roles and responsibilities of media production teams. 3. Analyze their media work for technical and aesthetic strengths and weaknesses. 4. Recognize that their media work has inpidual， social， and ethical consequences. 5. Reflect upon how their media literacy work relates to events outside of school learning. 6. Practice multiple approaches to developing and presenting ideas. 7. Structure media messages to be presented in various media forms. 8. Assume accountability for the inpidual， social， and ethical outcomes of their work. 9. Are motivated to appreciate how their media literacy work enhances self-expression， education， and career opportunities

Source: National Communication Association (1998). The speaking， listening， and media literacy standards and competency statements for k-12 education. Annandale， VA: NCA.

[注釋]

[1]譯者注：加州的媒介素養中心是非營利的教育團體，也是美國媒介素養教育的先驅者，提供媒介教育領導管理，公共教育，專業人才發展和全國性的教育資源；致力于提升和支持媒介教育在近用（accessing）、分析（analyzing）、評鑒（evaluating）與創造媒介內容（creating media content）的四個架構下，幫助年輕一代公民，發展21世紀民主社會和媒介文化生活所需的技能——批判思考和媒介制作，最終目標希望能使公眾對于媒介訊息做出明智的抉擇。貫徹透過教育賦予權力的哲學理念（empowerment through education），其任務在轉化媒介素養理論研究為實用的信息、訓練和教育的工具給教師、青年領導人、家長和兒童照顧者使用。見http://mediaportal.moe.gov.tw/front/bin/partprint.phtml?Part=web_03&Category=0&Style=1

[2]譯者注：指《文化和環境：培養批判意識》一書

[3]譯者注：美國憲法的第一修正案：“聯邦議會不得立法建立宗教，不得立法禁止宗教活動自由；不得立法剝奪言論自由和出版自由；不得剝奪人民以和平方式集會或者向政府請愿要求申冤的權利。”這是美國新聞自由的法律根源。